Kenneth A. Kavale, University of Iowa
Learning Disabilities Summit: Building a Foundation for the Future White Papers
This paper is available in alternative formats: | Download Word | Download pdf |
Pages: | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
Aaron, P. G. (1997). The impending demise of the discrepancy formula. Review of Educational Research, 67, 461-502.
Ackerman, P., Peters, J., & Dykman, P. (1971). Children with learning disabilities: WISC profiles. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4, 150-166.
Algozzine, B. (1985). Low achiever differentiation: Where's the beef? Exceptional Children, 52, 72-75.
Algozzine, B., Forgnone, C., Mercer, C., & Trifiletti, J. (1979). Toward defining discrepancies for specific learning disabilities: An analysis and alternatives. Learning Disability Quarterly, 2, 25-31.
Algozzine, B., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1981a). An analysis of difference score reliabilities on three measures with a sample of low-achieving youngsters. Psychology in the Schools, 18, 133-138.
Algozzine, B., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1981b). Special education services for normal children: Better safe than sorry. Exceptional Children, 48, 238-243.
Algozzine, B., & Ysseldyke, J. (1983). Learning disabilities as a subset of school failure: The oversophistication of a concept. Exceptional Children, 50, 242-246.
Algozzine, B., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1987). Questioning discrepancies: Retaking the first step 20 years later. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 301-312.
Algozzine, B., Ysseldyke, J. E., & McGue, M. (1995). Differentiating low-achieving students: Thoughts on setting the record straight. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 10, 140-144.
Algozzine, B., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Shinn, M. R. (1982). Identifying children with learning disabilities: When is a discrepancy severe? Journal of School Psychology, 20, 299-305.
Alspaugh, J., & Burge, P. (1972). Determination of reading expectancy. The Journal of Experimental Education, 40, 1-5.
Ames, L. B. (1968). A low intelligence quotient often not recognized as the chief cause of many learning difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1, 735-738.
Baldwin, R. S., & Vaughn, S. (1989). Why Siegel's arguments are irrelevant to the definition of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 513, 520.
Bannatyne, A. (1968). Diagnosing learning disabilities and writing remedial prescriptions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1, 242-249.
Barnett, D. W., & Macmann, G. M. (1992). Aptitude-achievement discrepancy scores: Accuracy in analysis misdirected. School Psychology Review, 21, 494-508.
Bateman, B. D. (1965). An educational view of a diagnostic approach to learning disabilities. In J. Hellmuth (Ed.), Learning disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 219-239). Seattle, WA: Special Child Publications.
Belmont, I., & Belmont, L. (1980). Is the slow learner in the classroom learning disabled? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 496-499.
Benjamin, A. C. (1955). Operationism. Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas.
Bennett, D., & Clarizio, H. (1988). A comparison of methods for calculating a severe discrepancy. Journal of School Psychology, 20, 359-369.
Benton, A. L., & Pearl, D. (Eds.). (1978). Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bergmann, G. (1961). Sense and nonsense in operationism. In P. G. Frank (Ed.), The validation of scientific theories (pp. 45-56). New York: Collier.
Berk, R. A. (1981). What's wrong with using grade-equivalent scores to identify learning disabled children? Academic Therapy, 17,(2), 133-140.
Berk, R. A. (1984). An evaluation of procedures for computing an ability-achievement discrepancy score. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 262-266.
Bijou, S. W. (1942). The psychometric pattern approach as an aid to clinical analysis--a review. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 46, 354-362.
Bishop, D. V., & Butterworth, G. E. (1980). Verbal-performance discrepancies: Relationship to birth risk and specific reading retardation. Cortex, 16, 375-389.
Bond, G. L., & Tinker, M. (1973). Reading difficulties: Their diagnosis and correction (3rd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Boodoo, G. (1984-1985). A multivariate perspective for aptitude-achievement discrepancy in learning disability assessment. Journal of Special Education, 18, 489-494.
Braden, J. P., & Weiss, L. (1988). Effects of simple difference versus regression discrepancy methods: An empirical study. Journal of School Psychology, 26, 133-142.
Burns, E. (1984). The bivariate normal distribution and the I.Q. of learning disability samples. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 294-295.
Chalfant, J. C. (1985). Identifying learning disabled students: A summary of the National Task Force Report. Learning Disabilities Focus, 1, 9-20.
Chalfant, J. C., & King, F. S. (1976). An approach to operationalizing the definition of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 228-243.
Chapman, J. C. (1923). The unreliability of the difference between intelligence and educational ratings. Journal of Educational Psychology, 14, 103-108.
Chapman, J. S., & Boersma, F. J. (1979). Learning disabilities, locus of control, and mother attitudes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 250-258.
Christensen, C. A. (1992). Discrepancy definitions of reading disability: Has the quest led us astray? A response to Stanovich. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 276-278.
Clarizio, H. F., & Bennett, D. E. (1987). Diagnostic utility of the K-ABC and WISC-R/PIAT in determining severe discrepancy. Psychology in the Schools, 24, 309-315.
Clarizio, H. F., & Phillips, S. E. (1986). The use of standard scores in diagnosing learning disabilities: A critique. Psychology in the Schools, 23, 380-387.
Clarizio, H. F., & Phillips, S. E. (1989). Defining severe discrepancy in the diagnosis of learning disabilities: A comparison of methods. Journal of School Psychology, 27, 383-391.
Clausen, J. (1972). Quo vadis, AAMD? Journal of Special Education, 6, 51-60.
Clements, S. D. (1966). Minimal brain dysfunction in children: Terminology and identification. (NINDS Monograph No. 3, U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 1415). Washington, DC: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Coles, G. S. (1978). The learning-disabilities test battery: Empirical and social issues. Harvard Educational Review, 48, 313-340.
Cone, T. E., & Wilson, L. R. (1981). Quantifying a severe discrepancy: A critical analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 359-371.
Cone, T. E., Wilson, L. R., Bradley, C. M., & Reese, J. H. (1985). Characteristics of LD students in Iowa: An empirical investigation. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 211-220.
Crane, A. R. (1959). An historical critical account of the accomplishment quotient idea. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 29, 252-259.
Cronbach, L. J., & Furby, L. (1970). How we should measure "change"--or should we? Psychological Bulletin, 74, 68-80.
Cronbach, L. J., Gleser, G. C., Nanda, H., & Rajaratnam, N. (1972). The dependability of behavioral measurements: Theory of generalizability for scores and profiles. New York: Wiley.
Cruickshank, W. M. (1977). Myths and realities in learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 51-58.
Cureton, E. E. (1937). The accomplishment quotient technique. Journal of Experimental Education, 5, 315-326.
Dangel, H. L., & Ensminger, E. E. (1988). The use of discrepancy formulas with LD students. Learning Disabilities Focus, 4, 24-31.
Danielson, L. C., & Bauer, J. N. (1978). A formula-based classification of learning disabled children: An examination of the issues. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 163-176.
Davis, W. A., & Shepard, L. A. (1983). Specialists' use of tests and clinical judgment in the diagnosis of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 128-138.
Deese, J. (1972). Psychology as science and art. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Dingman, H. F., & Tarjan, G. (1960). Mental retardation and the normal distribution curve. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 64, 991-994.
Divoky, D. (1974). Education's latest victim: The "LD" kid. Learning, 3, 4-8.
Dore-Boyce, K., Misner, M., & McGuire, D. (1975). Comparing reading expectancy formulas. The Reading Teacher, 29, 8-14.
Dudley-Marling, C., Kaufman, N., & Tarver, S. (1981). WISC and WISC-R profiles of learning disabled children: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 307-319.
Elliot, M. (1981). Quantitative evaluation procedures for learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 14, 84-87.
Epps, S., McGue, M., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1982). Inter-judge agreement in classifying students as learning disabled. Psychology in the Schools, 19, 209-220.
Epps, S., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Algozzine, B. (1983). Impact of different definitions of learning disabilities on the number of students identified. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 1, 341-352.
Epps, S., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Algozzine, B. (1985). An analysis of the conceptual framework underlying definitions of learning disabilities. Journal of School Psychology, 23, 133-144.
Epps, S., Ysseldyke, J. E., & McGue, M. (1984). "I know one when I see one"--Differentiating LD and non-LD students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 7, 89-101.
Erickson, M. T. (1975). The z-score discrepancy method for identifying reading-disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 308-312.
Evans, L. D. (1990). A conceptual overview of the regression discrepancy model for evaluating severe discrepancy between I.Q. and achievement scores. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 406-412.
Feldt, L. A. (1967). Reliability of differences between scores. American Educational Research Journal, 4, 139-145.
Finlan, T. G. (1992). Do state methods of quantifying a severe discrepancy result in fewer students with learning disabilities? Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, 129-134.
Finlan, T. G. (1994). Learning disability: The imaginary disease. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
Fletcher, J. M., Espy, K. A., Francis, P. J., Davidson, K. C., Rourke, B. P., & Shaywitz, S. E. (1989). Comparisons of cutoff and regression-based definitions of reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 334-338.
Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Rourke, B. P., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1992). The validity of discrepancy-based definitions of reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 555-561, 573.
Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Lyon, G. R., Foorman, B. R., Stuebing, K. K., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1998). Intelligent testing and the discrepancy model for children with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 13, 186-203.
Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Shankweiler, D. P., Katz, L., Liberman, I. Y., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., Fowler, A. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1994). Cognitive profiles of reading disability: Comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 6-23.
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., & Lynn, A. (1996). Relation of phonological and orthographic processing to early reading: Comparing two approaches to regression-based, reading-level-match design. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 639-652.
Forness, S. R. (1985). Effects of public policy at the state level: California's impact on MR, LD, and ED categories. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 36-43.
Forness, S. R., Sinclair, E., & Guthrie, D. (1983). Learning disability discrepancy formulas: Their use in actual practice. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 107-114.
Frame, R. E., Clarizio, H. F., Porter, A. F., & Vinsonhaler, J. R. (1982). Inter-clinician agreement and bias in school psychologists' diagnostic and treatment recommendations for a learning disabled child. Psychology in the Schools, 19, 319-327.
Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 3-17.
Frankenberger, W., & Fronzaglio, K. (1991). A review of states' criteria and procedures for identifying children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 495-500.
Franzen, R. (1920). The accomplishment quotient: A school mark in terms of individual capacity. Teachers College Record, 21, 432-440.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. G., & Lipsey, M. W. (2000). Reading differences between low-achieving students with and without learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. In R. Gersten, E. P. Schiller, & S. Vaughn (Eds.), Contemporary special education research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instructional issues (pp. 81-104). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Furlong, M. J. (1988). An examination of an implementation of simple difference score distribution model in learning disability identification. Psychology in the Schools, 25, 132-145.
Furlong, M. J., & Feldman, M. G. (1992). Can ability-achievement regression to the mean account for MDT discretionary decisions? Psychology in the Schools, 29, 205-212.
Furlong, M. J., & Yanagida, E. H. (1985). Psychometric factors affecting multidisciplinary team identification of learning disabled children. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 37-46.
Gajar, A. H. (1980). Characteristics across exceptional categories: EMR, LD, and ED. Journal of Special Education, 14, 165-173.
Gallagher, J. J. (1966). Children with developmental imbalances: A psychoeducational definition. In W. M. Cruickshank (Ed.), The teacher of brain-injured children (pp. 20-34). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Gallagher, J. J. (1986). Learning disabilities and special education: A critique. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 595-601.
Gelzheiser, L. M. (1987). Reducing the number of students identified as learning disabled: A question of practice, philosophy, or policy? Exceptional Children, 54, 145-150.
Gerber, M. M., & Semmel, M. I. (1984). Teacher as imperfect test: Reconceptualizing the referral process. Educational Psychologist, 19, 137-148.
Gordon, M., Lewandowski, L., & Keiser, S. (1999). The LD label for relatively well-functioning students: A critical analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 485-490.
Gottesman, R. C. (1979). Follow-up of learning disabled children. Learning Disability Quarterly, 2, 60-69.
Gottlieb, J., Alter, M., Gottlieb, B. M., & Wishner, J. (1994). Special education in urban America: It's not justifiable for many. Journal of Special Education, 27, 453-465.
Gresham, F. M., MacMillan, D. L., & Bocian, K. M. (1996). Learning disabilities, low achievement, and mild mental retardation: More alike than different? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 570-581.
Grossman, H. J. (Ed.). (1973). Manual on terminology and classification in mental retardation. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Deficiency.
Grossman, H. J. (Ed.). (1983). Classification in mental retardation (3rd rev.). Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Deficiency.
Gullicksen, H. (1950). Theory of mental tests. New York: Wiley.
Gutkin, T. B. (1979). WISC-R scatter indices: Useful information for differential diagnosis? Journal of School Psychology, 17, 368-371.
Hanna, G. S., Dyck, N. A., & Holen, M. C. (1979). Objective analysis of achievement-aptitude discrepancies in LD classification. Learning Disability Quarterly, 2, 32-38.
Harris, A. J. (1961). How to increase reading ability (4th ed.). New York: McKay.
Harris, A. J. (1971). How to increase reading ability (5th ed.). New York: McKay.
Harris, A. J. (1975). How to increase reading ability (6th ed.). New York: McKay.
Heber, R. F. (1959). A manual on terminology and classification in mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency Monograph (Supp. 64).
Heber, R. (1961). Modifications in the manual on terminology and classification in mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 65, 499-500.
Hempel, C. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (Vol. II, No. 7). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hessler, G. L. (1987). Educational issues surrounding severe discrepancy. Learning Disabilities Research, 3, 43-49.
Hinshaw, S. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 127-155.
Hoffman, J. V. (1980). The disabled reader: Forgive us our regressions and lead us not into expectations. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 7-11.
Hollingworth, L. S. (1926). The psychology of subnormal children. New York: Macmillan.
Hoover, H. D. (1984). The most appropriate scores for measuring educational development in the elementary schools: GEs. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 3, 8-14.
Hopkins, K. D., & Stanley, J. C. (1981). Educational and psychological measurement and evaluation (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Horn, A. (1941). The uneven distribution of the effects of special factors. Southern California Education Monographs, No. 12.
Iowa Department of Public Instruction. (1981). The identification of pupils with learning disabilities. Des Moines, IA: Author.
Jastak, J. F. (1967). Mental Retardation. Science, 155, 577-578.
Jenkins, J. R., & Pany, D. (1978). Standardized achievement tests: How useful for special education? Exceptional Children, 44, 448-453.
Johnson, D. J., & Myklebust, H. R. (1967). Learning disabilities: Educational principles and practices. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 243-245.
Kaufman, A. S. (1981). The WISC-R and learning disabilities assessment: State of the art. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 14, 520-526.
Kavale, K. A. (1987). Theoretical issues surrounding severe discrepancy. Learning Disabilities Research, 3, 12-20.
Kavale, K. A. (1993). A science and theory of learning disabilities. In G. R. Lyon, D. B. Gray, J. F. Kavanagh, & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Better understanding of learning disabilities: New views from research and their implications for education and public policies (pp. 171-195). Baltimore: Brookes.
Kavale, K. A. (1995). Setting the record straight on learning disability and low achievement: The tortuous path of ideology. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 10, 145-152.
Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (1984). A meta-analysis of the validity of Wechsler Scale profiles and recategorizations: Patterns or parodies? Learning Disability Quarterly, 7, 136-156.
Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (1985). The science of learning disabilities. San Diego, CA: College-Hill Press.
Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (1994). Learning disabilities and intelligence: An uneasy alliance. In T. E. Scruggs & M. A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (Vol. 8, pp. 1-63). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (1995). The nature of learning disabilities: Critical elements of diagnosis and classification. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (2000). What definitions of learning disability say and don't say: A critical analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 239-256.
Kavale, K. A., Forness, S. R., & Lorsbach, T. C. (1991). Definition for definitions of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 257-266.
Kavale, K. A., Fuchs, D., & Scruggs, T. E. (1994). Setting the record straight on learning disability and low achievement: Implications for policymaking. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 9, 70-77.
Kavale, K. A., & Reese, J. H. (1992). The character of learning disabilities: An Iowa profile. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, 74-94.
Kaye, D. B., & Baron, M. B. (1987). Long-term stability of intelligence and achievement scores in specific-learning-disabilities samples. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 3, 257-266.
Kelley, T. L. (1927). Interpretation of educational measurements. New York: World Book.
Kirk, S. A. (1962). Educating exceptional children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Kirk, S. A. (1975). Behavioral diagnosis and remediation of learning disabilities. In S. A. Kirk & J. M. McCarthy (Eds.), Learning disabilities: Selected ACLD papers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Kirk, S. A., & Elkins, J. (1975). Characteristics of children enrolled in the child service demonstration centers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 630-637.
Klatt, H. J. (1991). Learning disabilities: A questionable construct. Educational Theory, 41, 47-60.
Koppitz, E. M. (1971). Children with learning disabilities: A five year follow-up study. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Lally, M. J., Lloyd, R. D., & Kulberg, J. M. (1987). Is intelligence stable in learning-disabled children? Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 3, 411-416.
Lester, G., & Kelman, M. (1997). State disparities in the diagnosis and placement of pupils with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 599-607.
Lloyd, J., Sabatino, D., Miller, T., & Miller, S. (1977). Proposed federal guidelines: Some open questions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 69-71.
Lyon, G. R. (1989). I.Q. is irrelevant to the definition of learning disabilities: A position in search of logic and data. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 504-506, 512.
Macmann, G. M., & Barnett, D. W. (1985). Discrepancy score analysis: A computer simulation of classification stability. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 4, 363-375.
Macmann, G. M., Barnett, D. W., Lombard, T. J., Belton-Kocher, E., & Sharpe, M. N. (1989). On the actuarial classification of children: Fundamental studies of classification agreement. Journal of Special Education, 23, 127-143.
MacMillan, D. L., Gresham, F. M., & Bocian, K. M. (1998). Discrepancy between definitions of learning disabilities and school practices: An empirical investigation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 314-326.
MacMillan, D. L., Gresham, F. M., Siperstein, G. N., & Bocian, K. M. (1996). The labyrinth of IDEA: School decisions on referred students with subaverage general intelligence. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 101, 161-174.
MacMillan, D. L., & Jones, R. L. (1972). Lions in search of more Christians. Journal of Special Education, 6, 81-91.
MacMillan, D., Siperstein, G., & Gresham, F. (1996). A challenge to the viability of mild mental retardation as a diagnostic category. Exceptional Children, 62, 356-371.
Macy, M., Baker, J., & Kosinski, S. (1979). An empirical study of the Myklebust learning quotient. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 93-96.
Mather, N., & Healey, W. C. (1990). Deposing aptitude-achievement discrepancy as the imperial criterion for learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 1, 40-48.
McDermott, P. A., & Watkins, M. (1985). McDermott Multidimensional Assessment of Children. [Computer program]. New York: Psychological Corporation.
McGill-Franzen, S., & Allington, R. L. (1993). Flunk 'em or get them classified: The contamination of primary grade accountability data. Educational Researcher, 22, 19-22.
McKnight, P. T. (1982). The learning disability myth in American education. Journal of Education, 164, 351-359.
McLeod, J. (1979). Educational underachievement: Toward a defensible psychometric definition. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 322-330.
McLeskey, J. (1989). The influence of level of discrepancy on the identification of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 435-438, 443.
McLeskey, J. (1992). Students with learning disabilities at primary, intermediate, and secondary grade levels: Identification and characteristics. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, 13-19.
McLeskey, J., & Waldron, N. L. (1990). The identification and characteristics of students with learning disabilities in Indiana. Learning Disabilities Research, 5, 72-78.
McLeskey, J., & Waldron, N. L. (1991). Identifying students with learning disabilities: The effect of implementing statewide guidelines. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 501-506.
McPhail, A. H. (1922). The correlation between the I.Q. and the A.Q. School and Society, 16, 586-588.
Meehl, P. E. (1954). Clinical versus statistical prediction. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Mercer, C. D., Jordan, L., Allsopp, D. H., & Mercer, A. R. (1996). Learning disabilities definitions and criteria used by state education departments. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 217-232.
Messick, S. (1981). Constructs and their vicissitudes in educational and psychological measurement. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 575-588.
Meyen, E. (1989). Let's not confuse test scores with the substance of the discrepancy model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 482-483.
Miller, M. (1980). On the attempt to find WISC-R profiles for learning and reading disabilities: A response to Vance, Wallbrown, and Blaha. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 338-340.
Monroe, M. (1932). Children who cannot read. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Morris, R. D., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Lyon, G. R., Shankweiler, D. P., Katz, L., Francis, D. J., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1998). Subtypes of reading disability: Variability around a phonological core. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 347-373.
Morrison, G. M., MacMillan, D. L., & Kavale, K. A. (1985). System identification of learning disabled children: Implications for research sampling. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 2-10.
Myklebust, H. R., Bannochie, M. N., & Killen, J. R. (1971). Learning disabilities and cognitive processes. In H. R. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. II, pp. 213-251). New York: Grune & Stratton.
Naglieri, J. A. (1981). Factor structure of the WISC-R for children identified as learning disabled. Psychological Reports, 49, 891-895.
Noel, M. M., & Fuller, B. C. (1985). The social policy construction of special education: The impact of state characteristics on identification and integration of handicapped children. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 27-35.
Norman, C. A., & Zigmond, N. (1980). Characteristics of children labeled and served as learning disabled in school systems affiliated with Child Service Demonstration Centers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 542-547.
O'Donnell, L. E. (1980). Intra-individual discrepancy in diagnosing specific learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 3, 10-18.
O'Shea, L. J., & Valcante, G. (1986). A comparison over time of relative discrepancy scores of low achievers. Exceptional Children, 53, 253-259.
Payne, R. W., & Jones, H. G. (1957). Statistics for the investigation of individual cases. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 13, 115-121.
Pennington, B. F., Gilger, J. W., Olson, R. K., & DeFries, J. C. (1992). The external validity of age- versus I.Q.-discrepancy definitions of reading disability: Lessons from a twin study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 562-573.
Perlmutter, B., & Parus, M. (1983). Identifying children with learning disabilities: A comparison of diagnostic procedures across school districts. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 321-328.
Pintner, R., & Marshall, H. (1921). A combined mental-educational survey. Journal of Educational Psychology, 12, 32-43.
Piotrowski, R. J., & Siegel, D. J. (1986). The I.Q. of learning disability samples: A reexamination. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 492-493.
Popenoe, H. (1927). A report of certain significant deficiencies of the accomplishment quotient. Journal of Educational Research, 16, 40-47.
Reger, R. (1979). Learning disabilities: Futile attempts at a simplistic definition. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 31-34.
Reschly, D. J. (1992). Mental retardation: Conceptual foundation, definitional criteria, and diagnostic operations. In S. R. Hooper, G. W. Hynd, & R. E. Mattison (Eds.), Developmental disorders: Diagnostic criteria and clinical assessment (pp. 23-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Reynolds, C. R. (1981). The fallacy of "two years below grade level for age" as a diagnostic criterion for reading disorders. Journal of School Psychology, 19, 350-358.
Reynolds, C. R. (1984-1985). Critical measurement issues in learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 18, 451-476.
Reynolds, C. R. (1985). Measuring the aptitude-achievement discrepancy in learning disability diagnosis. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 37-55.
Reynolds, C. R., & Snow, M. (1985). Severe discrepancy analysis. [Computer program]. College Station, TX: TRAIN.
Rispens, J., van Yperen, T. A., & van Duijn, G. A. (1991). The irrelevance of I.Q. to the definition of learning disabilities: Some empirical evidence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 434-438.
Rodenborn, L. V. (1974). Determining and using expectancy formulas. The Reading Teacher, 28, 286-291.
Rodgers, B. (1983). The identification and prevalence of specific reading retardation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 53, 369-373.
Ross, R. P. (1992a). Accuracy in analysis of discrepancy scores: A nationwide study of school psychologists. School Psychology Review, 21, 480-493.
Ross, R. P. (1992b). Aptitude-achievement discrepancy scores: Accuracy in analysis ignored. School Psychology Review, 21, 509-514.
Ruch, G. M. (1923). The achievement quotient technique. Journal of Educational Psychology, 14, 334-343.
Rutter, M. (1978). Prevalence and types of dyslexia. In A. L. Benton, & D. Pearl (Eds.), Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge (pp. 5-28). New York: Oxford University Press.
Rutter, M. (1990). Isle of Wight revisited: Twenty-five years of child psychiatric epidemiology. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 633-653.
Rutter, M., & Yule, W. (1973). Specific reading retardation. In L. Mann, & D. Sabatino (Eds.), The first review of special education (pp. 49-62). Philadelphia: JSE Press.
Rutter, M., & Yule, W. (1975). The concept of specific reading retardation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16, 181-197.
Sabatino, D. A., & Miller, T. L. (1980). The dilemma of diagnosis in learning disabilities: Problems and potential directions. Psychology in the Schools, 17, 76-86.
Salvia, J., & Clark, J. (1973). Use of deficits to identify the learning disabled. Exceptional Children, 39, 305-308.
Schulte, A., & Borich, G. D. (1984). Considerations in the use of difference scores to identify learning-disabled children. Journal of School Psychology, 22, 381-390.
Scruggs, T. E. (1987). Theoretical issues surrounding severe discrepancy: A discussion. Learning Disabilities Research, 3, 21-23.
Selz, M., & Reitan, R. (1979). Rules for neuropsychological diagnosis: Classification of brain function in older children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 258-264.
Senf, G. M. (1977). A perspective on the definition of LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 537-539.
Share, D. L., McGee, R., McKenzie, D., Williams, S., & Silva, P. A. (1987). Further evidence relating to the distinction between specific reading retardation and general reading backwardness. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5, 34-44.
Share, D. L., McGee, R., & Silva, P. D. (1989). I.Q. and reading progress: A test of the capacity notion of I.Q. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 97-100.
Share, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1986). The stability and classification of specific reading retardation: A longitudinal study from age 7 to 11. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 32-39.
Share, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1987). Language deficits and specific reading retardation: Cause or effect? British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 22, 219-226.
Shaw, S. F., Cullen, J. P., McGuire, J. M., & Brinckerhoff, L. C. (1995). Operationalizing a definition of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 586-597.
Shaywitz, S. E., Escobar, M. D., Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., & Makuch, R. (1992). Evidence that dyslexia may represent the lower tail of a normal distribution of reading ability. New England Journal of Medicine, 326, 145-150.
Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., Holahan, J. M., & Shaywitz, S. E. (1992). Discrepancy compared to low achievement definitions of reading disability: Results from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 639-648.
Shaywitz, B. A., Holford, T. R., Holohan, J. M., Fletcher, J. M., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., & Shaywitz, S. E. (1995). A Matthew effect for I.Q. but not for reading: Results from a longitudinal study. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 894-906.
Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., & Escobar, M. D. (1990). Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls: Results of the Connecticut Longitudinal Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264, 998-1002.
Shepard, L. (1980). An evaluation of the regression discrepancy method for identifying children with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 14, 79-91.
Shepard, L. A. (1983). The role of measurement in educational policy: Lessons from the identification of learning disabilities. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices, 2, 4-8.
Shepard, L. A. (1989). Identification of mild handicaps. In. R. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 545-572). New York: Macmillan.
Shepard, L. A., & Smith, M. L. (1983). An evaluation of the identification of learning disabled students in Colorado. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 115-127.
Shepard, L. A., Smith, M. L., & Vojir, C. P. (1983). Characteristics of pupils identified as learning disabled. American Educational Research Journal, 20, 309-331.
Short, E. J., Feagans, L., McKinney, J. D., & Appelbaum, M. I. (1986). Longitudinal stability of LD subtypes based on age-and I.Q.-achievement discrepancies. Learning Disability Quarterly, 9, 214-225.
Siegel, E. (1968). Learning disabilities: Substance or shadow. Exceptional Children, 35, 433-437.
Siegel, L. S. (1988). Evidence that I.Q. scores are irrelevant to the definition and analysis of reading disability. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 42, 201-215.
Siegel, L. S. (1989). I.Q. is irrelevant to the definition of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 469-478, 486.
Siegel, L. S. (1990). IQ and learning disabilities: R.I.P. In H. L. Swanson & B. Keogh (Eds.), Learning disabilities: Theoretical and research issues (pp. 111-128). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Siegel, L. S. (1992). An evaluation of the discrepancy definition of dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 618-629.
Simmons, G. A., & Shapiro, B. J. (1968). Reading expectancy formulas: A warning note. Journal of Reading, 2, 625-629.
Sinclair, E., & Alexson, J. (1986). Learning disability discrepancy formulas: Similarities and differences among them. Learning Disabilities Research, 1, 112-118.
Sinclair, E., Guthrie, D., & Forness, S. R. (1984). Establishing a connection between severity of learning disabilities and classroom attention problems. Journal of Educational Research, 78, 18-21.
Singer, J., Palfrey, J., Butter, J., & Walker, D. (1989). Variation in special education classification across school districts: How does where you live affect what you are labeled? American Educational Research Journal, 26, 261-281.
Smith, M. D., Coleman, J. M., Dokecki, P. R., & Davis, E. E. (1977). Intellectual characteristics of school labeled learning disabled children. Exceptional Children, 43, 352-357.
Sobel, M., & Kelemen, E. (1984). On an application of statistical ranking and selection tables to the identification of the learning disabled. Journal of Educational Statistics, 9, 215-226.
Stanovich, K. E. (1986a). Cognitive processes and the reading problems of learning disabled children: Evaluating the assumption of specificity. In J. K. Torgesen, & B .Y. L. Wong (Eds.), Psychological and educational perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 87-131). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Stanovich, K. E. (1986b). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-407.
Stanovich, K. E. (1989). Has the learning disabilities field lost its intelligence? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 487-492.
Stanovich, K. E. (1991a). Conceptual and empirical problems with discrepancy definitions of reading disability. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 269-280.
Stanovich, K. E. (1991b). Discrepancy definitions of reading disability: Has intelligence led us astray? Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 7-29.
Stanovich, K. E., & Siegel, L. S. (1994). Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: A regression-based test of the phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 24-53.
Stevenson, J. (1988). Which aspects of reading disability show a "hump" in their distribution? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2, 77-85.
Sulzbacher, S., & Kenowitz, L. A. (1977). At last, a definition of learning disabilities we can live with? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 67-69.
Swanson, H. L. (1991). Operational definitions and learning disabilities: An overview. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 242-254.
Swerling, S. L., & Sternberg, R. J. (1996). Off track: When poor readers become learning disabled. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Tarjan, G., Wright, S. W., Eyman, R. K., & Keeran, C. V. (1973). Natural history of mental retardation: Some aspects of epidemiology. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 77, 369-379.
Thomson, M. (1982). Assessing the intelligence of dyslexic children. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 35, 94-96.
Thorndike, R. L. (1963). The concepts of over- and underachievement. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University Press.
Thurlow, M. L., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1979). Current assessment and decision-making practices in model LD programs. Learning Disability Quarterly, 2, 15-24.
Thurlow, M. L., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Casey, A. (1984). Teachers' perceptions of criteria for identifying learning disabled students. Psychology in the Schools, 21, 349-355.
Toops, H. A., & Symonds, P. M. (1922). What shall be expected of the AQ? Journal of Educational Psychology, 13, 513-528.
U.S. Department of Education. (1999). To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities: Twenty-first annual report to the Congress on the implementation of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
U.S. Office of Education. (1968). First annual report of the National Advisory Committee for Handicapped Children. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
U.S. Office of Education (1976, December 29). Proposed rule-making. Federal Register, 41, (230), 52404-52407. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Office of Education (1977, December 29). Assistance to states for education of handicapped children: Procedures for evaluating specific learning disabilities. Federal Register, 42, (250), 65082-65085. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Valus, A. (1986a). Achievement-potential discrepancy status of students in LD programs. Learning Disability Quarterly, 9, 200-205.
Valus, A. (1986b). Teacher perceptions of identification criteria emphasized in initial learning disabilities placement. Learning Disabilities Research, 2, 21-25.
Van den Bos, K. P. (1989). Relationship between cognitive development, decoding skill, and reading comprehension in learning disabled Dutch children. In P. Aaron & M. Josh (Eds.), Reading and writing disorders in different orthographic systems (pp. 75-86). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Van der Wissel, A., & Zegers, F. E. (1985). Reading retardation revisited. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 3, 3-9.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Lyon, G. R. (2000). Differentiating between difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: More evidence against the I.Q.-achievement discrepancy definition of reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 223-238.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Sipay, E. R., Small, S. G., Pratt, A., Chen, R., & Denckla, M. B. (1996). Cognitive profiles of difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601-638.
Walberg, H. J., & Tsai, S. (1983). Matthew effects in education. American Educational Research Journal, 20, 359-373.
Wallbrown, F. H., Blaha, J., & Vance, H. B. (1980). A reply to Miller's concerns about WISC-R profile analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 340-345.
Wallbrown, F. H., Vance, H. B., & Blaha, J. (1979). Developing remedial hypotheses from ability profiles. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 557-561.
Watkins, M., & Kush, J. (1988). The research assistant. [Computer program]. Phoenix, AZ: South West Ed Psych.
Weir, M. (1967). Mental Retardation. Science, 155, 576-577.
Whipple, G. M. (1922). Educational determinism: A discussion of Professor Bagley's address at Chicago. School and Society, 15, 599-602.
White, W. J., & Wigle, S. E. (1986). Patterns of discrepancy over time as revealed by a standard-score comparison formula. Learning Disabilities Research, 2, 14-20.
Willson, V. L. (1987). Statistical and psychometric issues surrounding severe discrepancy. Learning Disabilities Research, 3, 24-28.
Willson, V. L., & Reynolds, C. R. (1984-1985). Another look at evaluating aptitude-achievement discrepancies in the diagnosis of learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 18, 477-487.
Wilson, J. D., & Spangler, P. F. (1974). The Peabody Individual Achievement Test as a clinical tool. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 7, 384-387.
Wilson, L. R. (1985). Large-scale learning disability identification: The reprieve of a concept. Exceptional Children, 52, 44-51.
Wilson, L. R., & Cone, T. (1984). The regression equation method of determining academic discrepancy. Journal of School Psychology, 22, 95-110.
Wilson, L. R., Cone, T., Bradley, C., & Reese, J. (1986). The characteristics of learning disabled and other handicapped students referred for evaluation in the state of Iowa. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 553-557.
Wilson, L. R., Cone, T. E., Busch, R., & Allee, T. (1983). A critique of the expectancy formula approach: Beating a dead horse? Psychology in the Schools, 20, 241-249.
Wilson, W. R. (1928). The misleading accomplishment quotient. Journal of Educational Research, 17, 1-10.
Woodbury, C. (1963). The identification of underachieving readers. The Reading Teacher, 16, 218-223.
Ysseldyke, J., Algozzine, B., & Epps, S. (1983). A logical and empirical analysis of current practice in classifying students as handicapped. Exceptional Children, 50, 160-166.
Ysseldyke, J. E., Algozzine, B., Richey, L., & Graden, J. L. (1982). Declaring students eligible for learning disability service: Why bother with the data? Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 37-44.
Ysseldyke, J. E., Algozzine, B., Shinn, M. R., & McGue, M. (1982). Similarities and differences between low achievers and students classified learning disabled. Journal of Special Education, 16, 73-85.
Ysseldyke, J. E., Christenson, S., Pianta, B., & Algozzine, B. (1983). An analysis of teachers' reasons and desired outcomes for students referred for psychoeducational assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 1, 73-83.
Yule, W. (1973). Differential prognosis of reading backwardness and specific retardation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 43, 244-248.
Yule, W., & Rutter, M. (1976). Epidemiology and social implications of specific reading retardation. In R. M. Knights & D. J. Bakker (Eds.), The neuropsychology of learning disorders: Theoretical approaches (pp. 25-39). Baltimore: University Park Press.
Yule, W., Rutter, M., Berger, M., & Thompson, J. (1974). Over- and under-achievement in reading: Distribution in the general population. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 44, 1-12.
Zigler, E. (1967). Familial mental retardation: A continuing dilemma. Science,155, 292-298.
Zigler, E., & Balla, D. (Eds.). (1982). Mental retardation: The developmental-difference controversy. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zigler, E., & Hodapp, R. (1986). Understanding mental retardation. New York: Cambridge University Press.