Method

Treatments

PALS. First-Grade PALS was developed by researchers at Vanderbilt University (e.g., D. Fuchs, Fuchs, Thompson, Svenson et al., 2001; Mathes et al., 1998). PALS is a structured, peer-mediated program that emphasizes phonological awareness, beginning decoding, word recognition, and fluency, all skills that researchers have demonstrated to be important for successful beginning reading programs (e.g., Blachman et al., 1999; Hatcher, Hulme, & Ellis, 1994; Juel, 1996; Torgesen et al., 1997; Vellutino et al., 1996). Results of several large-scale experimental studies indicate that PALS helps develop beginning reading skills for a majority of low-, average-, and high-achieving students, and for many children with disabilities (e.g., D. Fuchs et al., 1997; D. Fuchs, Fuchs, Thompson, Al Otaiba et al., 2001; Mathes et al., 1998). PALS has proven to be effective in schools with many minority children and children living in poverty as well as in schools with predominantly white, middle-class student populations. However, an estimated 10% to 20% of low-achieving nondisabled students (Mathes et al.), and more than 50% of students with disabilities (D. Fuchs, Fuchs, Thompson, Al Otaiba et al.) have not responded to PALS.

In the large-scale investigation that provided the context for this study, Standard PALS was compared to PALS + Fluency, which was designed to promote reading fluency and comprehension. Standard PALS and PALS + Fluency were implemented three times per week for approximately 35 min per session. Teachers paired higher performing readers with lower performing readers. Each lesson began with a brief teacher-led introduction of new sounds and words. Then, the students conducted the PALS activities in pairs.

The higher performing student was always the tutor or "Coach" first, and the lower-performing student was the "Reader" first. For each activity, the Coach provided prompts, praise, and corrective feedback to the Reader. After completing each activity, the students switched roles. PALS activities included letter-sound recognition, decoding, sight word recognition, and reading short stories. Students also conducted Partner Reading in books that corresponded to the reading level of the lower-performing student in each pair. The Coach read a page, then the Reader read the same page. When the partners finished a book, they switched roles and read it at least three more times. Students in PALS + Fluency conducted the same activities, with two modifications. The sight words were presented in phrases rather than in isolation, and the short stories were read in a repeated reading, "Speed Game" format in which a student read the story in a fixed time, then had two chances to read more words than the first time.

Modified PALS. Modified PALS lessons were conducted in the classroom during the scheduled PALS time. The teachers selected Coaches who were capable of reading the PALS lessons independently and demonstrated the ability to work well with lower-performing students. Modified PALS activities were similar to PALS; however, they incorporated three important modifications. First, fewer sounds and words were introduced at one time, and the students worked on lessons that matched their skill level. Second, the Coach modeled the sounds and words for the Reader. Opportunities for reading without a model were also built into the activities. Third, more emphasis was placed on phonological awareness and decoding skill.

Tutoring. Tutoring took place three times per week, for 35 min per session, and substituted for PALS. Students received tutoring from a trained adult and the tutoring roles were not reciprocal. Tutoring was more individualized than PALS and Modified PALS in several ways. First, tutors were trained to teach students to mastery. Sounds and words used in tutoring were grouped into sets. Students did not progress to a new set until they had mastered the sounds and words in the first set. Second, the tutors spent more time on activities that were especially difficult for the students. Third, an additional motivational component was built into the tutoring lessons. During each lesson, the student determined how many sounds and words were needed to master the set, and marked this "goal" on a bar graph. For example, if there were 15 sounds in a set, the student would draw a line at the number 15 on the y-axis of the graph. At the end of the activity, the student counted the number of sounds mastered, and graphed this number in relation to the goal.

Previous Page | Next Page
(Method: Participation) | (Method: Measures)